We started out in the morning session with a lecture on "The Metallurgy of Armor; Iron or Steel?" by Dr. Alan Williams, from Reading University. He showed his recent work on the metallurgy of several pieces and full harness from the Wallace, Tower, and some German harness. He showed how they were working with plate that did not have a homogeneous carbon content and how it formed into bands with the slag. Then how heat-treated would form pearlite and martensite. Although he didn't say much on case hardening. Session 1

The we had Dr. Matthew Strickland from Glasgow University give a talk on "The Longbow at War; A Military Revolution?" Basically everyone has to this point said that the English won most of the battles of the 100 years war by using the "NEW" invention of the Longbow. Well, not true he contends, there are longbow from bog finds going back to 4000BC. It was Richard II that used mass groups of Archers that changed how 14th century battles were fought. Session 2

Then, Ian Eaves former Keeper of the Armour at the Royal Armouries talked about "Jacks of Defense". These are the 15th and 16th century jacket armour formed of little square or rectangular plates with a single hole in the center, that are then sewn between 2 or more layers of fabric. Session 3

We went to lunch and when we cam back, we had a very interesting talk by Chris Dobson former 'Master Armourer in Residence at the Royal Armouries in Leeds. His talk was on "1429: The last will and testament of Giovanni d'Andrea, a Florentine Armourer" Great stuff, a record of what was in the shop at his death, starting with a great anvil (broken!) and ending with the unpaid bills, and who owed him money. Session 4

The Shona Rutherford-Edge (Education Officer at Sulgrave Manor) gives us "Some thoughts on Arming Doublets, Linings and Textile elements in Armour." This discourse was not complete, but very interesting. I hope she has it published. She is married to David Edge, curator of the Wallace Collection, who brought down 3 period arming caps. 2 from Salads and the last I'm not sure. One was stuffed with Beaver fur, one with Tow (a grass) and one horsehair. What was more interesting was that the one with horsehair was formed of 4 little triangular sections connected to a leather strap and with an eyelet at the top of the triangle. You use a drawstring to tighten the top together and get a period suspension. Session 5

And lastly, we had Mike Loades (amateur d'armes) who talked all over the map on everything from Egyptian bows and chariots to the war-horse. [Interesting fellow] Session 6

Then most of us went to the Pub for another 4 hours where I learned even more that at the study day. Including the politics of moving the Tower collection to Leeds. (And you think we have bad politics!) Pub

The first session of the morning was "The Metallurgy of Armor; Iron or Steel?" by Dr. Alan Williams, from Reading University.

Unfortunately, we missed the first bit of the lecture. At the point where we came in, Dr. Williams was talking about a survey of Italian armor from across Europe. He stated that the survey results showed that about 50% of all Italian armor form 1340-1440 were hardened to some extent.

He then started an explanation of period steel. He showed how they were working with plate that did not have a homogeneous carbon content and how it formed into bands with the slag. Then how heat-treated would form pearlite and martensite. Although he didn't say much on the use of case hardening. Most of the plate produced during the middle ages is wrought iron. This being produced in small furnaces, at temperatures below that required to melt the iron, and in small batches called blooms. The blooms were then hammered into plate with water hammers. Folded several times caused the slag to come to the surface and sluff off. This produces the characteristic banded cross section of medieval metal, ferrite crystals (or grains) and bands of Slag.

The medieval craftsmen came to this through simple observation. Iron with less slag, was harder, and less brittle. Further that rapid quenching in water, oil, urine or other liquids could harden it.

He then presented several period examples. Each picture called out the hardness on the Vickers Hardness scale and showed the microscopic cross section of the metal to show its makeup.

1. The Bascinet from Churburg that is now in the Tower Armories at Leeds 1366. (RATL IV 470) Very little slag, Pearlite and Ferrite. Carbon content in the .06% range (approx. a 1060 steel) An attempt had been made to quench harden this piece but it was not tempered. See picture

2. Hourglass gauntlet in the Wallace collection. (A251-252) Mostly Pearlite, little slag. See picture

3. One Brigantine steel plate, high slag, "Rubbish Plate" Ferrite, slag, little pearlite. The hardness comes from the slag and hammering, very brittle. (slag also doesn't weld well)

4. Frog Mouth Helm Wallace Collection (A186) Banding in the steel. Started as a bloom and forged out. Carbon content varies from .02% to .06%, average .035% (1035 steel) Some slag, and corrosion in the voids.

5. The Armor of the Wladislas, King of Bohemia, Augsburg 1510 (A22) Hardness varied across the armor. Cross section showed Martensite, with Pearlite. Hardened and tempered steel. Armet skull tempered martensite, approx. 400 on the Vickers scale. Visor showed as ferrite and martensite, attempted to harden but failed due to low carbon content. Gauntlet cuffs may not belong to the harness, as they are not hardened, but are ancient steel (i.e. showed banding). The sabatons were hot rolled steel, pointing out a restoration in Victorian times.

6. Puffed and slashed armor in the Wallace Collection (A28) Much restoration. Hardened and tempered. Recent restoration showed that it was blued and gilded. One of the puffs and the main plate were not hardened but were 16th C steel. Some repair, cheap and "Nasty" Many plates do not belong.

7. German Gothic Harness in the Wallace Collection (A62) 304-475 Vickers scale. Ferrite and tempered martensite. Variation in hardness due to variations in carbon content. Discussed how impact resistance is dependent on the slag content not on the hardness of the piece. Since the Slag would fail first.

8. Puffed and slashed arm harness in the Wallace Collection (A245) Pearlite - Hardened but not quenched.

9. Repoussed Plate in the Wallace Collection (A1342) This is an armourers advertisement. Picture 2 armourers working on an anvil making a rectangular plate. Banded ferrite and pearlite blued and gilded. Similar to 16th century armors.

10. Mass produced 17th century horseman's armor. Pearlite and Slag. Very heavy and "Cheap" The protection of armor plate varied as the square of the thickness. In other words, to get twice the stopping power you only need to increase the thickness by ¼.

The forth session started after lunch. The Presenter was Chris Dobson, former Master armourer in residence at the Royal Armouries in Leeds. His talk was on "1429: The last will and testament of Giovanni d'Andrea, a Florentine Armourer".

Chris had gone to Florence, where none of the records are cataloged or on microfiche. He spent several days just finding this account by pouring over the books in the clerk of record office.

He stressed that Giovanni was an armour maker as opposed to an armour "broker" like the Missaglia of Milan.

The inventory of the Armoury: Note, the list does not describe in detail all the tools or hammers, and on some of the larger tools lists them by weight.

Tools:
• 1 large broken anvil
• 2 quills of lead [to mark the steel?]
• 8 blocks to set stakes [stumps]
• 1 skuttle [?]
• 1 pair of tongs - poor grade
• 125 pounds of hammered copper
• 92 pounds - strong shear [a large metal shear]
• 3 pairs of shears for cutting [hand shears]
• 4 pair punches for mail [tongs or pinchers]
• 6 little hammers
• 164 pounds stakes
• 1 large cooler - ceramic trough [for quenching]
• 1 small curved leather knife??

Stock:
• 2 pauldrens for the joust
• 8 riveted mail caimails
• 1 breast of 4 plates
• 1 large wrapper [for an armet]
• 1 poor jousting breast
• 25 yards of cloths for polishing
• 1 basin
• 1 copper jug
• 1 oil lamp
• 21 unfinished helms, polished
• 4 covered breasts
• 12 uncovered curises, unfurnished
• 6 pair of tassets
• 15 pair of cuises
• 2 pair of pauldrons
• 2 pair of gauntlets
• 2 pair of slippers [sabatons]
• 1 rough vanbrace
• 3 pair of vanbraces
• and "For his own use, 1 sword" [interesting]

Note: The clerk writing up the list did not list the forge, quenching tanks, grinding equipment, but the next entry may explain this:

• a house and workshop fitted out for the craft of the armourer

• 3 parcels of land around Florence
• 2 pages of people that owned him money
• half a sheet of people he owed money
• And finally, 3 specific items that he owed to the state. [Taxes, of course]